The Contents of the «Far Eastern Studies» N4, 2024 [e-version].
Contents
Politics
Vinogradov A.V. The Third Plenum of the CCP Central Committee: Factors of Instability and Development Prospects
Troshchinskiy P.V. The Second Session of the 14th National People’s Congress: Outcomes of China’s Legislative Development in 2023
Asmolov K.V. Changes in the Inter-Korean Policy of the DPRK and the ROK and Prospects for the Development of the Situation on the Peninsula
Economics
Smirnova V.A. The Role of International Cooperation in the Chinese Food Security Strategy
Shishikin V.G., Antonov D.A. Development of the Video Game Industry in China in the Beginning of 21st century
Samsonova V.G. Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the DPRK in the Tourism Industry
State and Society
Pikover A.V. China’s Policy in the Field of Artificial Intelligence
View Point
Leshakov P.S., Terekhin N.N. A New Look on the Economic History of Colonial Korea Using Agriculture as an Example
History
Gorbachev B.N. New Embassy in New China: On the 65th Anniversary of the Construction of the USSR Embassy Campus in Beijing
Chen Yao, Yu Danhong. “Integration of Gentry and Merchants” in Singapore’s Chinese Community and Their Realist Policies (1877–1941)
Kang Shixin. Trade in Liushun (Port Arthur) at the Turn of the 19th and 20th Centuries
Culture
Maliavin V.V. The Scholar-Fighter: Chang Nai-zhou and His Book on Martial Art
Education
Guruleva T.L. Language Policy of the PRC at the Present Stage (2021–2024): Main Directions and Features of Implementation
Scientific Events
Blazhkina A.Y., Kvartalova N.L. XXV International Scientific Conference “China and East Asia: Philosophy, Literature, Culture”
The Third Plenum of the CCP Central Committee: Factors of Instability and Development Prospects
Andrey V. Vinogradov
The Third Plenary Session of the 20th CPC Central Committee (June 15–18) was one of the central events in China’s political life in 2024. The delay for more than six months in holding the plenum increased the sense of growing instability in China’s development, caused by the slow economic recovery after the pandemic, as well as the high-profile resignations of Foreign Minister Qin Gang and Defense Minister Liu Shangfu. The technical postponement of the plenum disrupted the procedure for making the most important state decisions typical for the Soviet-type republics. The timing and agenda of the plenum reaffirmed the seriousness of the challenges faced by the Communist Party leadership in the economy and on the international arena. The Communist Party’s search for a new model and a new theoretical concept of development is complicated by the need to take into account not only the constantly worsening international situation, the economic difficulties and socio-economic problems, but also the emergence of new productive forces and changes in the mode of production caused by the use of artificial intelligence, digital technologies, etc. The process of searching for new theoretical foundations continued at the plenum, the Decision of which formulated the main provisions for the development of China until 2029. Special attention was paid to the development of innovations, fundamental research, and the development of international cooperation in science and education in order to maintain high economic growth rates. Noticeably less attention was paid to solving social problems and social justice. An important direction of intra-party life was the continuing weakening of the role of the military in the leadership of the party and the political system of the PRC.
The Second Session of the 14th National People’s Congress: Outcomes of China’s Legislative Development in 2023
Pavel V. Troshchinskiy
The regular (second) session of the 14th National People’s Congress (NPC), held in March 2024, summarized the key outcomes of China’s socio-economic and legislative development in the second year following the 20th CPC National Congress (October 2022). According to established tradition, the third plenum of the 20th Central Committee of the CPC should have been held on the eve of the parliamentary session, with its decisions typically focusing on the country’s economic development. In turn, the decisions of the NPC are based on the work of the plenum, often taking the form of laws. However, in 2024, although the plenum did not take place, the NPC session proceeded as scheduled, with no changes to its working agenda. In the report of the State Council’s Premier, it was noted that China’s GDP growth reached 5.2 %, one of the highest figures among both developing and developed countries. In the legislative sphere, in 2023, the Chinese parliament, represented by the Standing Committee of the NPC, passed a number of important laws for the country’s legal system, and several existing laws were amended. Of particular note are the Law on Foreign Relations, which outlines the key principles of China’s foreign policy, and the Law on the Immunity of Foreign States, which replaced the previously existing principle of «absolute immunity» with «limited immunity.» In the fight against corruption, significant changes were made through the 12th amendments to the Criminal Law of the PRC. Additionally, legislative decisions focused on developing a mechanism to counter growing challenges and threats to Chinese statehood, finding adequate responses to sanction policies, implementing measures to create a stable financial and banking system, and strengthening the military amid rising tensions in the Taiwan Strait and the South China Sea.
Changes in the Inter-Korean Policy of the DPRK and the ROK and Prospects for the Development of the Situation on the Peninsula
Konstantin V. Asmolov
At the December plenum of the Central Committee of the WPC in 2023 and the January session of the National Assembly of the DPRK in 2024. North Korea has radically changed inter-Korean policy, abandoning the course of «unification of the country.» The authorities have disbanded relevant structures and intend to «completely remove from the national history of our Republic the very concept of «unification», «reconciliation» and «compatriots». According to Kim Jong-un, the DPRK and the Republic of Korea have finally become «hostile states» for each other, their relations are no longer determined by belonging to the same people, so the peaceful unification of the Korean peninsula is no longer considered possible. This course testifies to the recognition by the country’s leadership of objective reality and does not lead to an increase in the probability of an inter-Korean conflict initiated by Pyongyang.
This change of course was largely the result of the processes in the south of the peninsula, where the government of Yoon Seok-Yeol, on the contrary, strengthens the rhetoric of «achieving peace through force». The author considers President Yoon’s speech on March 1, 2024, formally dedicated to the 105th anniversary of the March 1, 1919 movement to be a sign of the new course. This speech can be considered as a program of a new inter-Korean policy aimed at eliminating the DPRK by the international community.
The changed relations between Seoul and Pyongyang should be perceived as a consequence of changes in the world order and the global security architecture, as the concepts that do not meet the new reality are revised or canceled. At the same time, Russia may be satisfied with the presence of a cold war on the peninsula, if it does not turn into a hot one, as well as with the further rapprochement between Moscow and Pyongyang, united by a common threat.
The Role of International Cooperation in the Chinese Food Security Strategy
Veronika A. Smirnova
China’s food security strategy is based on the principle of self-reliance. In the light of its historical experience, Beijing approaches the issue of attracting external resources in this area with caution. The integration of external vector into the national strategy has been gradual, from the assumption that external resources can be used in critical situations to a comprehensive vision of how they can contribute to domestic development. Along the way, China has progressively introduced measures to support domestic producers under the «bringing in» and «going out» policies and to promote international cooperation in food and agriculture. This was designed to reduce the pressure on domestic resources and contribute to the formation of a supportive external environment that favours the development of modern agriculture at home. As a result, there has been adopted the formula «utilising two markets, two resources»: the external vector has become an important complementary element in ensuring food security. Along with its integration into the national strategy, there are trends towards systematising and scaling up. Under Xi Jinping’s leadership, there has been strengthened inter-ministerial coordination in planning the development of international cooperation in food and agriculture and expanded the tools used, from innovative formats for science and technology cooperation to more active participation in the global governance agenda on food security. In its efforts to shape a supportive external environment, China is endeavouring to take a proactive stance. This is reflected both in greater involvement in regional and international organisations on the food and agriculture agenda and in the promotion of its own initiatives.
Development of the Video Game Industry in China in the Beginning of 21st century
Vitaly G. Shishikin
Denis A. Antonov
The policy of reform and opening-up led to the formation of the PRC game industry, which became an important element of the socio-economic landscape of the state during the last two decades of the XX century. The Chinese authorities’ ban on importing foreign consoles at the very beginning of the 21st century strengthened the local PC sector and multiplayer games market. This not only became the driving force behind the industry’s development, but was also used by the political establishment to strengthen ties with young people through various cultural, historical and propaganda projects, as well as support for cyber sports. Active government involvement was a response to the rapid expansion of the national computer entertainment industry, which started to cover a broader population; this led to both positive and negative consequences. Regulatory authorities focused on the impact of the gaming industry on young people, consistently expanding regulations and establishing stricter and clearer rules of behavior in virtual space and on the Web. At the same time, some restrictions may have been formal in nature, allowing the Chinese computer entertainment sector to maintain and develop international ties. In addition, the PRC authorities restrained the penetration of Western firms into the local market through regulatory mechanisms, seeking to make this process controlled, but preserving opportunities for mutually beneficial cooperation with the leaders of the Western industry. Favorable conditions were also created for the competitive development of local gaming firms, which led to the formation of a group of the strongest companies, which, having strengthened their positions in the domestic market, began global expansion. Thus, the gaming business has become another element for the modern Chinese state to demonstrate its national power and expand its international influence.
Cooperation between the Russian Federation and the DPRK in the Tourism Industry
Viktoria G. Samsonova
On September 13, 2023 a significant meeting of President of Russia V. Putin with DPRK leader Kim Jong Un took place at the Vostochny Space Launch Centre, and issues of bilateral cooperation, including trade and economic ties and cultural exchanges, were discussed. In our opinion, tourism could be one of the promising areas of our cooperation. The DPRK today has unique recreational, historical, and cultural attractions and has been actively developing its hotel base, trains personnel for the tourism sector, and can become one of the interesting tourist destinations for Russian tourists. After the COVID-19 pandemic and the forced closure of borders, the DPRK is gradually beginning to open up to the outside world, with priority emphasis placed on cooperation with Russia and intensifying partnership in the tourism sector. In 2024, tourists from the Russian Federation to the DPRK visited the Masik ski resort and Pyongyang, mountains Myohyang and others. According to the high level of organization of trips, friendly attitude towards Russian tourists, efficiency in resolving issues that arise during tours, the DPRK at the highest level decided to intensify cooperation with Russia in this area. The article analyzes the current situation in the tourism industry of the DPRK, opportunities for expanding the partnership between the Russian Federation and the DPRK in this area, researches the problems and ways to expand the tourist flow from the Russian Federation to the DPRK.
China’s Policy in the Field of Artificial Intelligence
Alexander V. Pikover
Today, China has achieved tremendous success in the field of information technology and is actively promoting the modernization of the country and increasing its competitiveness in the world through progressive digitalization and informatization of all sectors of life and production. With more than a billion registered users of the global information network, actively using the scientific and educational potential of the country, China keeps information policy in the zone of close attention, as evidenced, in particular, by the fact that it was created in 2014. Since its creation, the Central Commission of the CPC Central Committee on Internet Security and Informatization has been personally headed by Xi Jinping.
China is aware of the serious risks associated with the development of AI, but also understands the importance of this area for further development and improving the country’s competitiveness. In this regard, the political leadership is taking systematic steps and measures for the healthy and safe development of this area in the country and in the world. The information sphere is no less important for Russia, especially in the context of attempts to isolate it and displace it to the global periphery, therefore, in the current conditions, the topic of cooperation with China in the field of information technology is of particular priority for Russia. This is evidenced by its inclusion in the final joint Russian-Chinese statement of May 16, 2024 following the meeting of the heads of state in Beijing.
The article examines the general situation of the formation of AI regulatory tools in the world and, above all, in the PRC. A number of documents adopted by the country’s top political leadership, as well as expert assessments and opinions, were reviewed.
A New Look on the Economic History of Colonial Korea Using Agriculture as an Example
Pavel S. Leshakov
Nikita N. Terekhin
The article critically analyzes the main theoretical concepts that are used in the study of the economic history of colonial Korea and attempts to provide a new perspective on this period. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, the concept of the so-called “non-linear” understanding of history emerged in Russian historical science. This approach is the most productive for analyzing world history. Within the framework of the “non-linear” understanding of history, the theory of the so-called “colonial mode of production” should be used to analyze such a complex socio-economic and socio-political phenomenon of world history as colonialism.
It breaks the previously dominant frame of “feudalism-capitalism” and defines the colonial economy as specific, with its peculiarities and laws. Moreover, colonialism, being a “dead end” in the process of historical development, cannot give rise to a new socio-economic system and leads only to the degradation of the colony’s economy, even if there may be some development in certain periods and sectors.
All theoretical concepts of Korean and Russian historical science have been based on the so-called “unilinear” understanding of the historical process, where one socio-economic system must be followed by the next, more progressive one. Previously, colonial Korea was perceived as either a “semi-feudal colonial” or “colonial capitalist” society, but this understanding limited the possibilities of socio-economic analysis and confined the economic history of colonial Korea within the “feudalism-capitalism” dichotomy. The article attempts to move beyond the above dichotomy by analyzing colonial Korea’s agriculture using the theory of “colonial mode of production”.
New Embassy in New China: On the 65th Anniversary of the Construction of the USSR Embassy Campus in Beijing
Boris N. Gorbachev
The article examines the problems associated with the relocation of the USSR Embassy in China in the 1950s from its old location on Dongjiaominxiang (Nan’guan) Street in Beijing and the construction of a new embassy campus on the territory of the former Russian Orthodox Mission (ROM) in the Beiguan district. The article substantiates the idea that, although the decision to move the address of the construction of the new Soviet embassy appeared spontaneously during the design work, it was dictated by the objective need to ensure favorable conditions for the activities and development of the embassy in the context of growing cooperation with the PRC. Moreover, the relocation of the Soviet embassy to another location was linked to the general plan of the Chinese government to move foreign diplomatic missions from the Legation Quarter of Beijing in order to “end the half-century shame” of China’s semi-colonial past.
The article, based on archival data, provides a comparative analysis of the areas and volumes of office and residential buildings and other objects on the old and new embassy grounds, and describes the volume and nature of construction work and improvements, the implementation of which required significant costs and time (1954–1959).
The article pays attention to the fact of destruction during construction of church buildings of the ROM. At the same time, the author points out that in recent years, some historical shrines have been restored on the embassy territory. Particularly important was the revival of the Dormition Church in 2009. Such an approach to some extent compensates for the losses incurred during the construction of the new embassy in the 1950s.
The article concludes that the construction of the USSR embassy in a new location turned out to be correct and providential, since the land acquired by the first Russian people in Beijing — the Albazinians and the ROM, remained with our country Russia.
“Integration of Gentry and Merchants” in Singapore’s Chinese Community and Their Realist Policies (1877–1941)
Chen Yao
Yu Danhong
In colonial times Chinese merchants in Singapore aspired to the status of gentry, played the role of gentry in society, and performed social functions of gentry. At the same time, some gentry became involved in trade to gain, maintain and expand their power and prestige. We call the phenomenon the integration of gentry and merchants. In the traditional research paradigm scholars have analyzed the phenomenon in terms of national, political, and cultural identity. It is true that Chinese merchant leaders in Singapore of that time considered themselves patriots of China and were devoted to China at heart. But this article reinterprets some aspects of the Chinese diaspora in Singapore. The authors outline three major sources of power: personal business networks, the Chinese government and consulate, the colonial government. To gain power, merchants used five main strategies: expanding cultural nexus of power, interlocking officership, leading political or cultural movement, political loyalty, family legacy and marriage alliances. There were four main organizational models: dialect group association, chamber of Commerce across dialect groups, British-Chinese association, and modern political organizations. Their activities are divided into four types: philanthropic business, political movements, social reform, comprehensive activities. The integration of gentry and merchants and their realist policies reflected social needs, traditional Chinese values and psychological needs. It was the essence of their economic, social and cultural activities to acquire, maintain and expand their wealth, power and prestige.
Trade in Liushun (Port Arthur) at the Turn of the 19th and 20th Centuries
Kang Shixin
The history of the city of Port Arthur at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries in the literature is revealed primarily from the military point of view, which led to the emergence of numerous studies and works, while the role of the city as a commercial center has not received proper coverage either in Russian or Chinese historiography. The fact that contemporaries themselves perceived Port Arthur only as a military fortress also played an important role in this. This circumstance explains the fragmentary nature of the source base. The article reconstructs the history of trade in the city of Liushun during the Qing dynasty (until 1898) on the basis of archival materials, sources of personal origin and periodicals. The author concludes that the importance of Port Arthur as a temporary trading port was quite high before the foundation of Dalniy city. The construction of a military port in the 1880s stimulated the development of the city and promoted local Chinese trade. After Port Arthur was leased to the Russian Empire in 1898, the city became dominated by Russian capital. During the period of Russian rule, changes were made in the city’s life that allowed Port Arthur to develop along Western lines and attracted immigrants and investment that further developed the city’s industry and commerce. However, the purpose of such changes was to establish Port Arthur as a military stronghold of the Russian Empire in the Far East, which made the development of trade in the city unbalanced.
The Scholar-Fighter: Chang Nai-zhou and His Book on Martial Art
Vladimir V. Maliavin
The article explores the theoretical foundations, practical techniques and social context of the martial art school created in the late 18th century by Chang Naizhou, a native of Henan рrov. An educated man, Chang left a detailed description of the principles and methods of his school. The legacy of Chang Naizhou and the emergence of a large number of enthusiasts of martial arts among the educated elite of society indicates the formation in Qing China a new synthesis of elite and popular culture, which combined the traditions of Confucianism, Taoist and Buddhist self-cultivation and the folklore motifs. A stratum of professional fighters emerged, closely integrated both with the local society and its paramilitary formations (self-defense units, sworn brotherhoods, associations of participants in temple festivals, schools of martial arts, etc.) and the ruling elite of the empire and its military administration.
At the heart of Chang Naizhou’s method is the concept of configurations of force (shi 势), which are created by the action of the vital energy of the organism (so-called qi 气) and in turn strengthen and direct this action. The primary substrate of this energy is the so-called «centered qi», which in the spiritual-somatic practice of martial arts generates a great variety of properties and qualities of life experience and makes possible the unity of consciousness and physical body. The force in this case is the result of an interaction of the polar elements of Being. Chang Naizhou introduces many original concepts and techniques of martial art, but his outlook is determined by the common arsenal of Chinese tradition. Thus, his school reflected the nature of the whole Chinese civilization: the diversity of forms rooted in a comprehensive structural unity.
Language Policy of the PRC at the Present Stage (2021–2024): Main Directions and Features of Implementation
Tatiana L. Guruleva
The purpose of the article is to identify the main directions of the language policy of the PRC at the present stage (2021–2024) based on the analysis of regulatory documents and the system of activities carried out in the field of language and writing, as well as the characteristic features of its implementation. As a result of the study, it was revealed that the main directions of the language policy of the PRC at the present stage are: 1) further popularization and dissemination of Putonghua; 2) further formation of the norms of the commonly used Putonghua language and the system of normative hieroglyphic writing and their consolidation in various standards; 3) improving the processes of inheritance and development of the Chinese language and culture; 4) development of a modern high-quality state system of language services provided to the population; 5) protecting China’s linguistic and cultural diversity; 6) strengthening the spread of Chinese Putonghua abroad, strengthening the international status and influence of the Chinese language. The characteristic features of the implementation of the language policy of the PRC at the present stage were also identified, including the functioning of a new regulatory framework that determines the directions of language policy after 2020; intensive development of existing and implementation of new projects; expansion of the processes of normatization and standardization to all aspects and areas of language and writing; using a specialized exam/test as a tool for measuring language proficiency; complete transition of preschool education in national regions to the Putonghua language and transformation of the existing bilingual education system; the success of informatization and digitalization of the Chinese language and its hieroglyphic writing.