The Contents of the «Far Eastern Studies» N1, 2025.
Contents
Politics
Voloshchak V.I. Republic of Korea’s Cybersecurity Policy: Objectives, Instruments, International Cooperation
Economics
Stepanov N.S. Modern Aspects of the Problem of Cross-Border Payments between Russia and China
Mendagaziev A.E. Chinese Investments in Central Asia and the Role of Official Development Finance in Mitigating Political Risks
Makarov A.V., Makarova E.V. Mongolian Corridor of Russian-Chinese Trade
View Point
Karlusov V.V., Zakharova L.V., Rebrey S.M. The East Asian Development Model and Its Country Submodels: General and Specific (Based on the Examples of Japan and South Korea)
Environment
Kozyrin A.N., Yalbulganov A.A. Fiscal Instruments of Environmental Protection in China: the System of Legal Regulation
Makeeva S.B. Experience in the Development of the Territory and the Use of Land Resources in China’s Northwestern Province of Shaanxi
Military Build-Up
Morozov Yu.V. China’s Peacekeeping Activities as the Important Component of Its Foreign Strategy
History
Kolnin I.S. The Image of Zheng He and the Expeditions to the Western Ocean (1405–1433) in Modern Chinese Middle and High School Textbooks
Datsyshen V.G. Chinese Industrial Trainees at Soviet Enterprises in Siberia. On the Problem of «Educational and Industrial» Migration of Chinese to the USSR
Nemkova A.A., Tabarev A.V. Horizons of Cooperation: Russian-Korean Archaeological Expeditions during 1990s — Early 2000s
Philosophy
Maliavin V.V. Centeredness: The Core of Chinese Tradition
Education
Guleva M.A. School Education “Goes Outward”: a New Trend in the Export of Chinese Basic Education
Scientific Events
Zabrovskaya L.V. 2024 Peace Alliance Northeast Asia International Conference
Republic of Korea’s Cybersecurity Policy: Objectives, Instruments, International Cooperation
Valentin I. Voloshchak
The article is devoted to the analysis of the main directions of the Republic of Korea’s cybersecurity policy after the Yoon Suk Yeol administration came to power in 2022. Drawing from the analysis of ROK’s official documents, including the new 2024 Cybersecurity Strategy, the author demonstrates that the main aspect of Yoon Suk Yeol’s «proactive» cybersecurity policy is an appeal to the factor of the North Korean cyber threat, which necessitates the development of offensive cyber potential and preventive response to cyber threats. The author also notes that over the past three years, South Korea has expanded its participation in international cybersecurity exercises (including under the auspices of NATO) and, in general, strengthened cooperation in the field of cybersecurity with many foreign partners. Finally, an important part of the cybersecurity policy is the reform of public and private cybersecurity sector organizations’ activities management, aimed at increasing the role of the National Intelligence Service and the creation of a single coordinating body — the so-called National Cyber Security Committee. The author concludes that in the face of opposition that disagrees with the centralization policy and believes that strengthening the role of the National Intelligence Service in ensuring national cybersecurity is an abuse of power and leads to human rights violations, Yoon Suk Yeol failed to implement the main initiative of his cybersecurity policy and pass the Framework Act on Cybersecurity. At the same time, this situation is almost identical to the Park Geun Hye administration’s attempts to pass the Cyberterrorism Act, which also implied an expansion of the scope of National Intelligence Service authority and was subsequently blocked by the opposition faction.
Modern Aspects of the Problem of Cross-Border Payments between Russia and China
Nikita S. Stepanov
The transformation of the state of the socio-economic system of the Russian Federation in a multipolar world is caused, among other things, by the problems associated with cross-border payments under the pressure of sanctions and trade restrictions from the EU, the USA and their allies. The purpose of the article is to analyse the directions of solving the problems associated with the Russian-Chinese cross-border payments to the People’s Republic of China under the pressure of sanctions and trade restrictions. The currency structure of settlements for export and import of goods and services under foreign trade contracts of the Russian Federation in 2019/2024 has been analysed and the currency structure in international settlements via SWIFT system has been determined. The relationship in solving the problems of cross-border payments between Russia and China and the introduction of active measures aimed at combating dollarization and its sustainability is revealed. It is concluded that the implementation of cross-border payments on the basis of national and digital currencies of China and Russia, the use of supranational currency in the framework of settlements of international organisations SCO and BRICS, the implementation of barter transactions in the framework of bilateral Russian-Chinese clearing, cross-border payments through cryptocurrency or payments through third countries, the creation of an alternative international payment system BRICS Bridge — can help to overcome the US economic sanctions and control measures by European regulators. Theoretical and practical significance of the study is to identify promising solutions to the problems associated with Russian-Chinese cross-border payments on the basis of taking into account the interests of the two countries, which will increase trade turnover and improve the efficiency of economic cooperation not only between Russia and China, but also between all BRICS member countries.
Chinese Investments in Central Asia and the Role of Official Development Finance in Mitigating Political Risks
Arman E. Mendagaziev
The article unveils the particularities of Chinese approaches to investing in Central Asian countries, assessing political risks for doing business, and using tools of official development finance to mitigate such risks. The analysis highlights the centrality of China in the structure of foreign direct investment inflows in the region. The approaches of representatives of the academic community and business from China to assessing regional and country political risks are considered. The paper also confirms that China has become the largest provider of official development finance in Central Asia countries, and has surpassed key Western donors in terms of funding. Also examined are the main tools used by the PRC to protect its businesses from growing investment risks in the context of increasing interstate competition in the region. It is shown that in Central Asia China uses its trademark to mitigating political risk with development finance toolkit, but these practices in the region have specific features. For example, in cooperation with the political elites of the Central Asian countries China often uses aid as an inducement, and in order to influence ‘extra-legal’ risks, it supplies equipment to law enforcement agencies of partner countries, but refrains from assisting them in reforming institutions, improving judicial and legal systems, countering corruption, etc. The conclusion is drawn that the political risks are mitigated predominantly by the Chinese Export & Credit Insurance Corporation (Sinosure), whose insurance activities support the provision of investment loans by Chinese state-owned banks.
Mongolian Corridor of Russian-Chinese Trade
Alexander V. Makarov
Elena V. Makarova
The paper examines the problems and prospects of the Mongolian railway corridor of Russian-Chinese trade. It is shown that the Mongolian route has not achieved much success in the transit of container cargo between China and Europe. This was influenced by competition with sea transport, the presence of alternative routes and the archaic state of the Trans-Mongolian highway. As a result of the aggravation of the international situation around Russia, container cargo flow between China and Europe through Mongolia was almost stopped in 2023. Under the current conditions, Mongolia will completely drop out of continental cargo transportation in the coming years, since, unlike Kazakhstan, it does not have the ability to transit bypassing Russia.
At the same time, Mongolia still has the opportunity to realize its transit potential through participation in the dynamically growing Russian-Chinese trade. Mongolia’s location between the center of Russian export formation in Siberia and the Beijing agglomeration can become an important factor in its development and cooperation with the two neighboring countries. However, the low capacity of the Trans-Mongolian Railway remains the main limitation for increasing cargo transit through Mongolia. Against the backdrop of Russia’s plans to modernize the Eastern Polygon of railways, develop seaports in the Far East and build new crossings on the border with China, this threatens to once again oblivion of the Mongolian route.
Modernization of the Trans-Mongolian Railway is inextricably linked with a mutually acceptable solution to the issues of further development of the Soviet-Mongolian Company «Ulaanbaatar Railway». Of key importance among these issues is the introduction of an adequate business model for the joint venture, taking into account the necessary investments in railway infrastructure and rolling stock. This requires a serious adjustment of Mongolia’s state policy towards the joint company. Otherwise, the gradual transfer of Mongolian transit to other routes will inevitably lead to the bankruptcy of Ulaanbaatar Railway Company.
The East Asian Development Model and Its Country Submodels: General and Specific (Based on the Examples of Japan and South Korea)
Vyacheslav V. Karlusov
Liudmila V. Zakharova
Sofia M. Rebrey
In this article, an attempt is made to study the general and specific characteristics of the East Asian development model (EADM) from the methodological standpoint of retrospective system analysis. The introduction presents the research methodology, the authors’ understanding of the model of social development, including its basic (economic) and institutional levels, as well as the controversial approaches to the study of EADM based on a brief analysis of the relevant literature. Further, in the global comparisons, the specific experience of implementing the East Asian development model in countries such as Japan and South Korea (ROK) is considered. The periodization of the economic and social development of these countries in the second half of the 20th — first quarter of the 21st centuries is presented. The authors study general features and national specifics of the institutional regulation of the transition of an economy from extensive to intensive growth, from industrial to post-industrial stage, from imitation to innovative type of development. The mechanisms of public-private partnership are investigated, including the specifics of the relationship between the state and corporate, small and medium-sized enterprises. Based on the conducted research, a number of general findings and conclusions are made. The founder of the EADM was Japan, however, starting from the 1970–1980s, in a nationally specific form it began to be reproduced by new industrial countries and economies of the «first wave», including South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore and Hong Kong. It was the successful implementation of the EADM that allowed these countries and economies to become developed in a relatively short time, reaching the post-industrial stage of development. Unlike Western models of economic and social development, the EADM is characterized by a higher level of public regulation of the developing and developed market economy, including the creation and improvement of an effective mechanism of public-private partnership aimed, in particular, at the orderly flow of capital from labor-intensive to capital-intensive, and then to knowledge-intensive sectors of the economy.
Fiscal Instruments of Environmental Protection in China: the System of Legal Regulation
Aleksandr N. Kozyrin
Aleksandr A. Yalbulganov
The «green» agenda has long been among the priorities of the state policy of the People’s Republic of China. Solving environmental problems involves not only the adoption of regulatory legal acts, but also the mobilization of the necessary resources, a significant part of which is public finance.
The article examines the features of legal regulation of fiscal relations in the environmental sphere in China: the widespread use of non-legal sources — political acts and technical norms; the complex regulation, involving the application of acts of both tax and environmental law; the actual equalization of the law and government regulations, etc.
Public financing remains the main economic guarantee of environmental protection. The environmental legislation of the PRC obliges the executive branch to increase environmental protection costs and ensure their effectiveness. Improving «green» governance requires a clear delineation of responsibilities between central and local authorities for spending public funds for these purposes.
A diverse arsenal of financial and legal instruments for the implementation of «green» programs is presented: transfer payments to environmental protection areas, mandatory environmental liability insurance, «green» public procurement standards, improvement of pricing mechanisms, fiscal incentives for businesses connecting to state environmental projects, etc. At the same time, the financial mechanism is built by the state so that the functions of preventing harmful effects on the environment and compensating for environmental damage come to the fore.
The issues of using financial instruments to solve the problems of creating a low-carbon economy in China were also considered.
Experience in the Development of the Territory and the Use of Land Resources in China’s Northwestern Province of Shaanxi
Svetlana B. Makeeva
During the transition to the implementation of the regional coordinated development strategy in the PRC since the late 1990s, all provinces, autonomous regions and cities under the control of the Ministry of Natural Resources of China began to develop plans for territorial development and land use. This article summarizes the historical experience of territorial planning and land use in Shaanxi Province from the late 1990s to the present. Shaanxi played a key role in the implementation of the «opening up» policy in the western direction in the PRC. A comprehensive spatial policy was implemented in relation to the territory of Shaanxi in the framework of enhancing the agro-industrial potential, protecting cultivated land, maintaining rural-urban territorial balance and preserving historical and cultural heritage sites. Since the 1990s, the process of spatial planning and effective use of land resources in Shaanxi has been regulated by the General Land Use Plans of Shaanxi Province for 1997–2010, 2006–2020, 2021–2035, as well as the Special Land Use Plan in Shaanxi Province (2010–2015). The unique physical-geographical and natural-climatic position of Shaanxi determined the resource potential of the regional economic development of this northwestern Chinese territory. The accumulated historical experience of land use in Shaanxi Province from 1990 to the present day is a practical guide to spatial transformation of the territory with increased economic and demographic unevenness, growing environmental problems, limited amount of high-quality arable land, predominance of mountainous and forested terrain, and depletion of land after mining. Formation of new territorial guidelines for regional infrastructure in Shaanxi Province is one of the options for solution of ecological and economic problems of Western China.
China’s Peacekeeping Activities as the Important Component of Its Foreign Strategy
Yuri V. Morozov
The trends in the development of the military and political situation in the world indicate that the 21st century has not become safer for the world community compared to the previous century. Military conflicts continue in various regions of the world, posing a significant threat to the security of the peoples living there. In response to these regional security challenges, members of the UN Security Council use a variety of peacekeeping mechanisms, ranging from «military observer» missions, police operations, as well as «peacekeeping» and «peace enforcement» operations. Among the permanent members of this structure, China has recently shown the greatest activity in this area, which, with the help of peacemaking mechanisms, is trying to realize its concept of peaceful «building a common destiny of humanity.» At the same time, he is solving another task — protecting its national interests in the «hot spots» on the planet under the cover of the UN mandate. These factors cause to explore the main aspects of Chinese peacemaking, which acts as a component of the PRC’s foreign policy strategy. In this regard, the article examines the main milestones of China’s policy in the field of peacekeeping, this activity as a tool for realizing national interests, the specifics of the peacekeeping activities of China and the training system of Chinese peacekeepers.
The Image of Zheng He and the Expeditions to the Western Ocean (1405–1433) in Modern Chinese Middle and High School Textbooks
Ilia S. Kolnin
This article, for the first time attempts to comprehensively study the representation of one episode from the Chinese history — the expeditions of Zheng He (1405–1433) — in middle and high school textbooks of modern China. The corresponding sections in textbooks on the history of China for the 7th grade, both old and new editions, as well as individual mentions of this historical event and person in textbooks on elective historical disciplines of high school (9–11 grades) are analyzed. Throughout the comparison of the studied chapters and fragments, both basic information about expeditions that students are required to know, and that which was deliberately omitted from the educational materials was identified and designated. A certain progression in the presentation of material was also discovered: while in middle school this event is considered primarily within the framework of the history of China as one of the bright and outstanding pages of its past, high school textbooks integrate it into world history noting its influence on global processes such as the formation of sea routes and Chinese cultural influence abroad. I come to the conclusion that the information in the textbooks correlates with the use of the image of Zheng He and the early Ming expeditions to the Western Ocean within the framework of the official ideology and conveys its main postulates. However, some aspects that the Chinese leadership now places special emphasis on remain untouched in textbooks. It is likely that this may change in future editions.
Chinese Industrial Trainees at Soviet Enterprises in Siberia. On the Problem of «Educational and Industrial» Migration of Chinese to the USSR
Vladimir G. Datsyshen
The article is devoted to the problems of the history of Soviet-Chinese relations and Chinese migration to Russia. A special period in the history of Russian-Chinese relations was the 1950s, when after the proclamation of the PRC, the Soviet Union became China’s main partner in the international arena for a long time, and the basis of bilateral relations was the unity of the ideological and political principles of the ruling parties. During this period, not only did the old types of migration, such as labor migration, transform, but new ones also emerged. Among the new types of Chinese migration in Russia, one can single out educational and industrial migration. This type of migration affected most Soviet regions, and was especially important for Siberia. In the 1950s, thousands of Chinese came to Soviet enterprises, where they worked in production for a long time. But the purpose of their arrival was to study, which was achieved during work, as well as in their free time. Chinese workers and engineering and technical workers who came to Soviet enterprises to study were called interns and trainees, and in fact they were. Educational and industrial migration became the most effective form of Soviet-Chinese migration interaction and the most important component of Soviet-Chinese cooperation in the 1950s.
Horizons of Cooperation: Russian-Korean Archaeological Expeditions during 1990s — Early 2000s
Nemkova Alina Alexandrovna
Tabarev Andrey Vladimirovich
In this article, the authors explore the history of one of the most fascinating aspects of Russian-Korean scientific cooperation — the experience of joint archaeological expeditions in the Russian Far East. This unique research format, which involved financing, logistics, reporting, and presentation of results, was a novel concept for both Russian and Korean archaeologists. Cooperation began in the 1990s, focusing on the sites in the Maritime Region, such as Konstantinovskoye 1, Kraskinskoye, and Maryanovskoye settlements. In the early 2000s, the scope of the expeditions expanded to include the Khabarovsk Territory, including Suchu Island site, and the Amur Region, with such sites as Novopetrovka III, Gromatukha, Troitsky Necropilis, and Lake Dolgoye. Additionally, archaeological research continued in the Maritime, at Bulochka, Chernyatino-5, Koksharovka-1 and 8 sites. The scientific scope of these investigations ranged from the Stone Age, specifically the Early Neolithic period, to the Middle Ages. All the objects studied were highly informative, and their materials were of great importance not only for the archaeology of the Far East but also for the Pacific region as a whole. The greatest contribution to joint research on the Russian side came from representatives of scientific and educational institutions in Novosibirsk and Vladivostok, including the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography SB RAS and Novosibirsk State University, Institute of History, Archaeology, and Ethnography of the Peoples of the Far East FEB RAS and Far Eastern Federal University. As a result of several joint Russian-Korean archaeological projects in the 1990s and early 2000s, both sides have gained valuable experience in cooperation and the study of various types of archaeological sites. They have also addressed scientific issues of mutual interest and established a foundation for further collaboration in the future.
Centeredness: The Core of Chinese Tradition
Vladimir V. Maliavin
The concept of the middle or center played a pivotal role in various aspects of Chinese tradition, from geopolitical concepts to epistemology and social practice. Confucianism required “holding on the middle” (zhi zhong), Taoism preached “guarding the middle” (shou zhong). Since the middle in question refers to the dispersed dynamic structure, it is preferable to speak of centering or centeredness of various processes: cosmogonic, social, spiritual etc. In China, centering corresponded to the focus and the source of the world cycle, which brought together centripetal and centrifugal vectors of the world sphere’s rotation. This centeredness preceded subjective existence and, being the hidden source of the world process, predetermined the world’s harmony. The term centering-harmony (zhong he) became China’s most general formula of reality. It designates not a universal “measure” of things, but the mutual penetration of polar principles, generating the power of life. Therefore, centrality became a fundamental category of Chinese politics and strategy while the main condition for achieving it was a sort of heightened sensitivity or spiritual enlightenment.
The secret of the effectiveness of the centered structure lies not just in the timely alternation of rest and movement but in the coincidence of both exactly at their limit: the absolute stillness, thanks to the encompassing integrity of the world focus, turns into the edge of movement. This superimposition of extremes is the main principle of the “cycle of the Great Way”, to which Chinese applied the epithet “refined” or “marvelous” (miao). This indefinable coincidence of being and doing, real and illusory, nature and culture, conscious and unconscious was doomed to remain the deepest secret of the tradition. The dominance of the logical-discursive model of reality in the Modern era inevitably led to the catastrophic breakdown of the Chinese tradition. But in the modern informational civilization, which gives priority to human communication, the Chinese principle of centrality regains great relevance and value.
School Education “Goes Outward”: a New Trend in the Export of Chinese Basic Education
Maria A. Guleva
Exporting education not only promotes its comprehensive development and quality improvement, scientific, technological and cultural exchange between states, but also can bring economic benefits and create new growth points, enhance the country’s international influence and position in the international arena. In recent years, China has paid attention not only to the development of basic education, but also to solving more and more new problems and challenges facing the Chinese economy and society as a whole. Against this background, the export of Chinese overseas education is emerging as an interesting new agenda worthy of attention. And while in the past China actively imported knowledge and specialists from different countries, now we can observe how China is gradually building new forms of international cooperation and actively establishing contacts not only in higher education, but also in vocational and school education. In recent years, the Chinese authorities have initiated the establishment of international Chinese schools in countries where Chinese citizens live and work, and where there is a significant proportion of Chinese huaqiao. Such educational institutions are established either on the basis of existing educational centers (for example, Confucius Institutes), or with the assistance of local authorities, as well as in cooperation with other Chinese schools located in the territory of the PRC. China’s international schools are not only open to children of Chinese citizens, but also to students from other countries. It is expected that this will help Chinese children adapt more easily to the new environment and enable them to continue their education when they return to China, but it will also promote international exchange and improve the quality of education at different stages of education.