The Contents of the «Far Eastern Studies» N3, 2025.
Contents
Politics
Vorontsov A.V. Moscow ‒ Pyongyang ‒ Beijing. The Nature of Relations at Present
Economics
Akimov A.V. Research and Development in China as a Factor of Economic Growth. Statistical Analysis
Serbina E.M. China Rural Financial Institutions in the Years of the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025)
Liu Rui. Sino-Russian New Energy Cooperation in the Context of “Dual Carbon” Goal
Jandzikova N. The Internal Strategy of the PRC for the Development of Nuclear Energy under the 14th Five-Year Plan
State and Society
Mikhalev M.S. Tourism, Buddhism, Socialism: in Search of “Tibet Development Model”
View Point
Vinogradov A.V. Authoritarian State and Corruption in China
Russian Far East
Khmeleva G.A., Guseva M.S., Trukhin A.S. Russia – China: The Development Potential of the Machine-Building Industry
History
Kuzminkov V.V. Japanese Research on the Soviet-Japanese War: Trends and Narratives
Yakovkin E.V. The Armed Conflict near the Khalkhin Gol River Reflected in the Russian Emigrant Press in Manchuria (May — September 1939)
Hu Wenxu. The Diplomatic Dilemma of the Chinese National Government in the League of Nations on the “Finland Question” (1939–1940)
Book Reviews
Kocherov O.S. Book Review: Zhao Jianying. 21st Century Chinese Marxism. Tr. by V.G. Burov, D.A. Smirnov. Moscow: Moscow University Press, 2024. 307 p.
Scholar Jubilee
Anniversary of Nikolay Anatolyevich Samoilov
Ad Memoriam
In Memory of Vladimir Stepanovich Myasnikov
In Memory of Andrey Niyazovich Karneev
Moscow ‒ Pyongyang ‒ Beijing. The Nature of Relations at Present
Alexander V. Vorontsov
In today’s rapidly changing environment of strategic rifts in the world, the relations between the three neighboring states identified in the title of the article are also dynamically evolving and being filled with new content. Since the establishment of the DPRK and the PRC, the interaction between them, although not cloudless at times, has generally remained close, defined by good-neighborly partnership and, at certain stages, even allied obligations. In the face of new challenges to their security posed by the United States and its allies, in recent years the three states under consideration have objectively had additional grounds for strengthening cooperation with each other. The actual rapprochement of the three mainland states and the existence of a fundamental prerequisite for its further deepening in the form of a varying degree of hostile policy on the part of the U.S. toward all three mentioned states has seriously concerned U.S. strategists and stimulated the focus of close attention to the study of this phenomenon in order to find ways to separate the members of this “troika” from each other. At the same time, one cannot deny the objective fact that the rapid growth of the Russian-North Korean relations has aroused close attention in China, including in its expert community, in some segments of which different approaches to this phenomenon, including certain concerns, have manifested themselves. The conclusion is that the it is realistic that there are objective divergences of interests of the three countries on some specific issues, which, of course, require joint heightened and sensitive attention. Therefore, Moscow, Beijing and Pyongyang should by no means underestimate the possible negative effect of these factors and should further improve both the quality of bilateral consultations and the level of coordination of their actions on the Korean Peninsula, in the Northeast Asia region and in the world as a whole.
Research and Development in China as a Factor of Economic Growth. Statistical Analysis
Alexander V. Akimov
China is moving to an innovative stage of economic development. When comparing China with the world leaders in the development of science and technology (the EU, the USA, Japan, and the Republic of Korea), China ranks first in terms of people employed in science and technology and second after the United States in terms of research and development costs. China imports many high-tech products, but exports more, being a world leader in the export of office and telecommunications equipment. The high share of high-tech products in the Chinese economy is largely due to the concentration of technology developers’ efforts on applied research. Another component of China’s economic success in the field of high technology is the combination of a broad research front with a concentration of efforts in particularly relevant areas. Thus, the production of computers, communication and electronic equipment is in the first place in terms of research and development costs from all industries. 20 % of all funds is spent on this area. In the second place is the production of electric machines and appliances (10 % of the cost), slightly less goes to research in the automotive industry.
These positions are the strongest in China’s exports and account for about 40 % of research and development costs. A very important feature of China’s innovation environment is that it is part of China’s business. Business, not the government, is the main agent generating research and innovation. An important feature of China’s innovation complex is its reliance on a local base combined with attracting investments from other countries. More than 80 % of investments in research and development come from sources in China, but another 9 % each come from Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and other countries. Currently, China has developed a modern, powerful and efficient model for the production of knowledge and its rapid implementation in the economy. It is successfully operating, providing high rates of economic growth.
China Rural Financial Institutions in the Years of the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025)
Ekaterina M. Serbina
The article examines the activities of rural financial institutions in China, which act as an important link in financing ‘sannong’ (the Three Rural Issues, village, peasants, and agriculture) projects. Relying on the Chinese experts` papers, the author describes the structure and main characteristics of rural financial institutions, which include rural commercial banks, rural cooperative banks, rural credit cooperatives, village and township banks, microcredit companies, etc. The study analyzes the development of the reform of rural financial institutions during the 14th Five-Year Plan designed to facilitate solving problems that they encounter, including insufficient capital, focusing on short-term goals, high levels of risks, and overall poor performance. The reforms imply reducing the number of rural financial institutions through mergers and acquisitions, changing their strategy to focus on developing banking services that correlate with local characteristics and the evolution of clients` necessities, exploring regional potential and projects for lending in more detail, and expanding the use of digital services. In connection with the government’s policy of continuing the poverty alleviation plan, the growing priority of rural regeneration, and the predominance of ‘funding of science and technology, rural financial institutions have new tasks to fulfill. In order to carry out adequately, they need to study the latest trends both in the local industry and agrarian complex on a continuous basis, identify the objects with the greatest potential, and develop products and services tailored to their needs.
Sino-Russian New Energy Cooperation in the Context of “Dual Carbon” Goal
Liu Rui
In view of the «double carbon» goal («carbon peak and carbon neutrality»), green new energy cooperation between China and Russia is strategically important. This partnership is becoming a key driver for the formation of technological sovereignty in the low-carbon sector of Eurasia. The complementary advantages of the two sides’ resource conditions, high political trust and the common goal of carbon neutrality by 2060 have created conditions for the two countries to expand green energy cooperation. In recent years, China-Russia energy trade in natural gas, renewable energy, nuclear energy and other energy sources has gradually increased, with the volume and types of cooperation expanding and energy cooperation projects making progress. However, China faces obstacles such as a low share of clean energy trade, lagging infrastructure development, international political influence, high energy market volatility, and an imperfect digital management system. To address these challenges, China and Russia need to further strengthen political mutual trust, while enhancing innovation in energy science and technology, expanding the depth of cooperation in the industrial chain, introducing innovative financial cooperation, and improving digital energy management capabilities to promote the green and diversified development of energy cooperation, thereby ensuring the sustainable development of the two economies and steady improvement. Successful implementation of this agenda will significantly contribute to achieving Paris Agreement goals and strengthen BRICS leadership in the global low-carbon transition.
The Internal Strategy of the PRC for the Development of Nuclear Energy under the 14th Five‑Year Plan
Natalia Jandzikova
This article analyzes the internal strategy of the People’s Republic of China for the development of nuclear energy under the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025). The study focuses on two key pillars of China’s strategic approach: the management of spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste, and the construction of reactors alongside the development of new nuclear technologies. Based on a qualitative analysis of the Blue Books on Nuclear Energy (中国核能发展报告) from 2018 to 2024, the paper identifies the consistent steps China is taking to build a sustainable and independent nuclear energy sector. In the field of waste management, it examines the expansion of storage infrastructure, on-site waste processing, modular and mobile technologies, as well as the development of deep geological disposal and vitrification methods. In the area of nuclear reactor construction and nuclear technology innovation, the study highlights China’s transition from reliance on imported designs to localized production of nuclear equipment and advanced reactors. It explores both the widely used second- and third-generation PWRs and the development of high-temperature gas-cooled, small modular, and fast reactors. China’s nuclear strategy combines technological innovation with institutional support, aiming to address nuclear waste, ensure energy security, and strengthen the country’s global standing in the nuclear energy sector.
Tourism, Buddhism, Socialism: in Search of “Tibet Development Model”
Maxim S. Mikhalev
This paper elaborates on the recent trends in social and economic development of China’s Tibet in the context of the two opposing narratives, created and promoted by the government of PRC and Central Tibet Administration. While the former stresses out the economic and social achievements of the central government during the last seventy years, the latter tries to play them down by insisting that Tibetans need only religious freedoms. As it turns out, however, the compromise between these two narratives is reachable thanks to recent rise of tourism in Tibet. From one side, it creates wealth and promotes economic development. From another side, this development becomes possible only in case religious freedoms exist. Drawing on examples from other regions of China, where such sort of cultural tourism has been developing for a certain period of time, this paper warns that the above scenario has its own pitfalls. Selling religious tradition can cause its secularization that in turn leads to marginalization of local people. It is suggested that by strictly adhering to the principles of Chinese that implies priority of the common interests over the individual ones can prevent this scenario. This paper concludes that combination of tourism, Buddhism and socialism can create a new, unique Tibet development model.
Authoritarian State and Corruption in China
Andrey V. Vinogradov
The large-scale and unprecedented anti-corruption campaign in the history of the PRC, which began almost simultaneously with the election of Xi Jinping as General Secretary of the CPC Central Committee, affected all spheres of public life and went through several stages, but has not yet ended. Its duration, severity and intermediate results force us look at this phenomenon not only from the angle of political struggle in the party leadership, but also more broadly, as a phenomenon that reflects the problems not only of the current stage of party-state development, but the fundamental problems of an authoritarian state, state building in China. The political development of the Chinese state recently after a period of rapid economic growth has been attracting increasing attention both in China itself and abroad. And it brings to a number of common problems associated with the specifics of the traditional Chinese state, as well as the state and the political as a whole. The article examines the development of the Chinese state from a historical point of view through the prism of such a phenomenon characteristic of all stages of China’s development as corruption. The place and specificity of corruption in China from ancient times to the present day are shown, the main stages of the formation of the Chinese state from the beginning of the 20th century, the role of the vanguard party are considered, an analysis of the current state of the fight against corruption is given, conclusions are made about the nature of the Chinese state and the direction of its evolution.
Russia – China: The Development Potential of the Machine-Building Industry
Galina A. Khmeleva
Maria S. Guseva
Alexander S. Trukhin
This paper examines the development potential of the machine-building industry, focusing on trade and economic interactions between regions of the People’s Republic of China (PRC) and Russia. While Russo-Chinese collaboration in machine-building exhibits value growth and structural shifts, it also encounters systemic challenges. The volume of Russian machine-building exports to China has doubled since 2015, primarily driven by nuclear reactors and components of nuclear energy equipment. However, the share of machine-building products in Russia’s total exports to the PRC is declining, preserving the resource-oriented nature of Russian exports, while China strengthens its position in global value chains. Both Russia and the PRC exhibit regional asymmetries and a concentration of interactions. Chinese trade in Russian machine-building products is concentrated in Beijing, and leading regions for cooperation in Russia include Tatarstan, Tula Oblast, Tomsk Oblast, the Jewish Autonomous Oblast, and Primorsky Krai, where the most active production localization occurs. Large-scale projects, such as the construction of gas pipelines and nuclear power plants in the PRC and the development of the Arctic and the Northern Sea Route in Russia, stimulate technological partnerships. Settlements in national currencies mitigate dependence on the US dollar, though sanction-related risks persist. Chinese companies are actively localizing production in Russia; however, investments are predominantly directed towards low-technology sectors. Despite the establishment of a multi-tiered interaction system, the potential for collaboration in the machine-building sector remains underrealized. To deepen cooperation, it is imperative to reduce the technological gap, strengthen the innovation ecosystem, and foster joint research and development (R&D) initiatives.
Japanese Research on the Soviet-Japanese War: Trends and Narratives
Victor V. Kuzminkov
The article analyzes scientific publications by Japanese authors devoted to various aspects of the Soviet-Japanese War. It is emphasized that these works had a significant impact on the formation of public opinion in Japan regarding the USSR and Russia. The author notes that in the conditions of ideological confrontation, post-war studies in Japan focused on the negative consequences of the Soviet-Japanese War for the country. The historical role of the USSR in this war was often interpreted distortedly: the participation of the Soviet Union in the war against Japan was often presented as an act of aggression, which contributed to the formation of negative stereotypes about the Soviet Union, the strengthening of anti-Soviet propaganda and the consolidation of the image of the USSR as a hostile state. Particular attention is paid to key directions and narratives in Japanese publications. Historical plots presented in these works are often tendentious and adapted to the political situation, which contributes to the strengthening of revisionist views. At the same time, objective historical realities are ignored or distorted, which leads to the preservation of negative stereotypes about Russia even after the end of the period of ideological confrontation. The article sheds light on how scientific interpretations of historical events can be used for political purposes to shape public opinion. The author emphasizes the importance of a critical approach to the study of history in order to avoid such distortions and strive for an objective understanding of the past. Such an approach will help overcome the stereotypes and mistrust imposed by the confrontation, opening the way for constructive cooperation in creating good-neighborly relations that can prevent new conflicts.
The Armed Conflict near the Khalkhin Gol River Reflected in the Russian Emigrant Press in Manchuria (May — September 1939)
Evgeny V. Yakovkin
The largest armed Soviet-Japanese armed conflict was the fighting near the Khalkhin Gol River. Not only Japanese troops opposed the Red Army, but also the troops of the Manchukuo Army, in which Russian emigrants also served. In recent decades, Russian historiography has been interested in the history of the «Asano» detachment and, accordingly, the participation of emigrants in those events. At the same time, the question of how these events were covered for Russian emigrants living in Manchuria, of whom more than 70 thousand people lived at that time, was not considered. This region has been in operation since the early 1930s. It was occupied by the Japanese Kwantung Army and turned into a military and economic springboard for the planned war against the Soviet Union. Russian emigrants were forced to obey the instructions that descended from the command of the Kwantung Army and its satellite Manchukuo. The Japanese-Manchurian authorities tried to use Russian emigration for their own purposes, and this required unquestioning loyalty. This was done through propaganda through Russian emigrant and Manchurian organizations, as well as through print media, primarily newspapers and magazines. The article, based on the emigrant newspapers Golos Emigrants, Zarya, and Harbin Time, examines how this armed conflict was presented to the Russian Far East emigration, as well as the extent of the latter’s participation in it.
The Diplomatic Dilemma of the Chinese National Government in the League of Nations on the “Finland Question” (1939–1940)
Hu Wenxu
From July 1937, when the Lugou Bridge incident occurred, until the outbreak of World War II in September 1939, the Republic of China pursued a dual diplomatic strategy. On the one hand, China sought international sanctions against Japanese aggression through the Western powers. On the other hand, it needed military support from the Soviet Union. However, with the outbreak of the Soviet-Finnish conflict in late 1939, China faced a serious diplomatic dilemma in balancing the interests of the USSR and the Western powers. Finland soon filed a complaint to the League of Nations. The rules of procedure of the League of Nations Executive Council to a certain extent aggravated the diplomatic dilemma faced by China. Since the League of Nations Executive Council is required to pass resolutions unanimously, a single negative vote could result in the proposal being rejected. If a bill favored by a majority of countries failed to pass because China voted against it, China would not only be under the burden of tremendous pressure from international public opinion, but would also face isolation from other countries, making it even more difficult to obtain the aid it expects from the West. If China supported the resolution in the League of Nations, it could lose military aid from the USSR. This article will detail how the national government under Chiang Kai-shek sought understanding from all sides in this Soviet-Finnish conflict.