The Contents of the «Far Eastern Studies» N4, 2025.
Contents
Politics
Troshchinskiy P.V. The Third Session of the 14th National People’s Congress: Outcomes of China’s Legislative Development in 2024
Asmolov К.V. The Constitutional Crisis in the Republic of Korea in 2024–2025. Martial Law and Impeachment of the President
Simonenok A.V. Transformation of Political Dialogue between Russia and Thailand in the Context of a Changing World Order
Economics
Ostrovskii A.V. The PRC Economy: Prospects of its Development in the Period of the 14-th Five Year Plan (2021–2025)
Larin V.L. Jilin Province: Northern Vector of Openness in Modern Development Strategy
Yudina T.N., Yao Lindong. “Promoting the Shanghai Spirit”: Development of Regional Digitalization for Peaceful Geopolitical Purposes
Yankova A.D. Peculiarities of “One Belt, One Road Initiative” Implementation in Africa: the Phenomenon of “Small but Beautiful” ICT Projects
Samsonova V.G., Zhuchkina P.A. Prospects for Trade and Economic Cooperation between Russia and the Republic of Korea at the Present Stage
Shikhina A.E. Russian-South Korean Trade Structure Transformation in 2022–2023
Russian Sinology
Gorbachev B.N. Chinese Front of World War II in the Assessments of Soviet (Russian) Authors: Historiographical Essay
History
Gao Mingyue, Khisamutdinov A.A. Researcher of Northeast China Vladimir Kormazov (1886–1960)
Education
Dai Hui, Bazhenova E.S., Ostrovskii A.V. The Discipline of Regional Studies in China: the Requirements of the Era and National Characteristics
The Third Session of the 14th National People’s Congress: Outcomes of China’s Legislative Development in 2024
Pavel V. Troshchinskiy
The March 2025 regular (3rd) session of the 14th National People’s Congress (NPC) reviewed and summarized the PRC’s socio-economic and legislative developments in 2024. Over the past year, the NPC Standing Committee (NPCSC) enacted six new laws: the Tariff Law, the Law on Academic Degrees, the Rural Collective Economic Organizations Law, the Preschool Education Law, the Energy Law, and the Value-Added Tax Law. Moreover, it amended 15 laws, while the Organic Law of the State Council of the PRC was amended by the NPC. In total, 22 legislative initiatives were adopted. Among these, two new laws are particularly noteworthy: the Energy Law and the Value-Added Tax Law, both of which are designed to support the country’s ongoing economic reforms. The Energy Law promotes sustainability in the energy sector, encourages comprehensive development of alternative energy sources, and sets the goal of achieving carbon neutrality by 2060. The Value-Added Tax Law is a key component of the country’s fiscal policy. It governs the collection of value-added tax — the principal source of tax revenue in China. The decline in VAT revenue in 2024 compared to 2023 may reflect deeper challenges within the Chinese economy. That is why the adoption of this targeted law was, and remains, essential for addressing these challenges and improving both the tax system and the broader socio-economic landscape. Looking ahead, the NPC is working on several significant legislative initiatives. Among the most important are the Environmental Code, the Law on Financial Stability, and the National Unification Promotion Law.
The Constitutional Crisis in the Republic of Korea in 2024–2025. Martial Law and Impeachment of the President
Konstantin V. Asmolov
Following the April 2024 South Korean parliamentary elections, the standoff between President Yoon Seok-yeol and the legislature escalated to a new level. After opposition leader Lee Jae-myung was threatened with legal action, the opposition initiated preparations to remove the president from office, including a «total impeachment» process against officials who disagreed with the Democratic Party’s policies.
This crisis culminated on December 3, 2024, when President Yoon attempted to impose martial law, but Parliament members overruled him in accordance with the constitution. The state of emergency was in effect for five and a half hours, and there were no reported casualties.
On December 14th, 2025, Yoon Seok-yeol was impeached by the opposition. However, due to high levels of social polarization and a number of contentious interpretations, it took more than one month for the Constitutional Court to reach a decision. Despite this, the president was removed from office unanimously. Actions that may be considered in violation of the constitution, as well as public support for impeachment and the fact that a court ruling ended the crisis, all contributed to this outcome. The restoration of the president’s office would have led to a return to the previous political stalemate.
Despite the attempts by both parties to impose their own interpretation of events on the public, it is important to note that, generally, neither side is attempting to seize power through unconstitutional means, but rather through the abuse of legally authorized procedures. The imposition of martial law in the absence of a state of war or conflict, as well as the «total impeachment strategy» employed by the opposition, are not formally prohibited. At the same time, it is worth noting that the practice of changing laws when they hinder one’s goals is more characteristic of the opposition.
In such a scenario, it is necessary to state that a decision of the Constitutional Court would not immediately end the crisis. One should not therefore expect a change in the foreign policy direction of the country that would be more favorable to Russia.
Transformation of Political Dialogue between Russia and Thailand in the Context of a Changing World Order
Anna V. Simonenok
This article examines the key stages in the development of political relations between Russia and Thailand, with a particular focus on the dynamics of bilateral cooperation in the 21st century. The analysis is situated within the broader framework of global international processes, which enables the identification of a significant correlation between the trajectory of Russia—Thailand relations and shifts in the international/regional order.
During the Cold War, Thailand was aligned with the anti-Soviet bloc, which posed a major obstacle to the establishment of normal bilateral ties. The dissolution of the Soviet Union and the subsequent reduction in global tensions during the 1990s facilitated the establishment of more constructive relations.
In the 21st century, Russian—Thai political cooperation has demonstrated sustained progress, expanding into new domains and increasingly shaped by geopolitical considerations. External pressure and partial international isolation following the events of 2014 — namely, Russia’s reunification with Crimea and the Thai military coup — acted as catalysts for deeper political dialogue and closer collaboration, particularly in the realm of security.
The article argues that the current trajectory of bilateral political engagement is characterized by a degree of strategic resilience. Despite Russia’s ongoing Special Military Operation and Thailand’s transition from military to civilian governance, the continuity of relations suggests the emergence of an elite-level consensus in Thailand regarding the long-term value of engagement with Russia.
The PRC Economy: Prospects of its Development in the Period of the 14-th Five Year Plan (2021–2025)
Andrei V.Ostrovskii
The article analyses problems of China’s social and economic development in 2024 and tasks, which were proposed by the First Session of the National People’s Congress in March, 2025. In recent years, the average annual GDP growth rate has been about 5% per year. At this rate, China’s GDP could reach 250 trillion yuan by 2035, or about $35 trillion at the current dollar exchange rate. In July, 2024 the Third Plenum of the 20th Convocation summed up the results of the economic reform, which began in 1978 and took a decision about a new stage of economic reform, which was called as “deepening economic reforms”. In the article the author on the base of a large volume of statistical data analyzed the results of social and economic development of the PRC in 2024 and made a forecast of economic development in 2025. The author made a conclusion, that by the end of the 14-th Five Year Plan China will strengthen its economic potential, could fulfill slogan “Made in China — 2025” and noticeably promote living standards of the Chinese people. According to the author, the Chinese economy is facing a number of complex challenges that threaten the implementation of China’s socio-economic development plans through 2035 and 2049. These challenges include a huge population of over 1.4 billion people, a growing labor shortage, a shortage of energy resources, and worsening environmental problems as the economy grows. However, during the 14th Five-Year Plan (2021–2025), Beijing has already reached new economic frontiers and, apparently, will be able to realize the «Made in China 2025» slogan by the end of 2025, and trade and economic ties with China will be of decisive importance for many countries around the world. By the end of the 14th Five-Year Plan, China will strengthen its economic power, gradually catching up with the American economy in terms of its scale, and the standard of living of the country’s population will continue to improve significantly.
Jilin Province: Northern Vector of Openness in Modern Development Strategy
Viktor L. Larin
The article is devoted to the strategic approaches and specific policies of the northeastern province of Jilin to form the northern vector of China’s openness to the outside world. The author shows that the task set by Beijing to create in Jilin one of the trade, production, transport and logistics platforms for interaction with Northeast Asia is primarily associated with the solution of the issue of » the Northeast revival» and the use of the market, resource and technological potential of Eurasia for this purpose. For these purposes, the tasks and role of tools — special economic zones, which are typical for China in recent decades, are considered. The article also presents the province’s efforts to create an international transport system linking it with Russia, Japan and South Korea, as well as with Europe via Russia and Mongolia. The author does not find any visible results of the fact that the instruments of openness formed in Jilin Province in recent years have somehow influenced its economic and social dynamics, except for the twofold increase in provincial export volumes and the transformation of Russia into the main importer of its products. The reason for this is both the short period of time during which these steps were taken and certain negative trends inside and outside the country. Nevertheless, Jilin Province today is more ready than before to act as a locomotive of regional economic integration in NEA, seeing in this a source and means of internal economic and social development.
“Promoting the Shanghai Spirit”: Development of Regional Digitalization for Peaceful Geopolitical Purposes
Tamara N. Yudina
Yao Lindong
The article is devoted to the current issues of regional digitalization within the framework of permanent participants of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization for peaceful purposes and the SCO summit in Tianjin in 2025, the slogan of which is «Promoting the Shanghai Spirit: SCO in Action». In the context of digital globalization and taking into account the opportunities, risks and challenges in the development of regional digitalization of the SCO member countries, the authors of the article clarify the directions and prospects for cooperation between them in the context of accelerating the construction of Internet infrastructure, creating regional digital platforms; security of the development of the digital economy, strengthening cooperation in the field of creating an industry-wide technological alliance for cooperation to promote interaction in the digital spheres between the member countries of this association. The purpose of the analysis is to position the directions and results of the development of regional digitalization of the economies of the SCO technological alliance for peaceful geopolitical purposes. The objectives of the study were qualitative assessments, firstly, of the digital transformation and development of the digital economy in the countries of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization and the SCO as a unique platform for the development of the digital economy of its member countries; secondly, the role of China in activating the digitalization of the economies of the SCO member states in the context of the digital silk road; thirdly, the importance of the SCO digital forums for the peaceful development of global digitalization; fourthly, the special position of India’s cooperation, drawn into the «artificial intelligence race», in the field of regional digitalization within the SCO. The profound result of the study was the conclusion of the article that in the era of turbulence, accelerating scientific and technological revolution, global digitalization, the «artificial intelligence race», the technological sovereignty of the country and the region is the basis of political sovereignty both at the national, as evidenced by China’s status as one of the global digital powers, and at the regional levels.
Peculiarities of “One Belt, One Road Initiative” Implementation in Africa: the Phenomenon of “Small but Beautiful” ICT Projects
Alexandra D. Yankova
The article analyzes the “small but beautiful” ICT projects implemented by China in African countries within the framework of the Digital Silk Road Initiative and the broader Belt and Road strategy. This format involves smaller investments, higher standards, simplified start-up procedures and mandatory social returns in contrast to China’s larger digital initiatives. The focus is on projects that address localized challenges in sensitive areas such as telecommunications, digital infrastructure, education, computer skills and technology transfer.
The text attempts to deconstruct the concept of “small but beautiful projects”, systematize these initiatives, and demonstrate how they simultaneously serve social goals by increasing the digital inclusion of local communities and Beijing’s strategic interests by helping Chinese companies, technologies, and standards gain a foothold on the African continent.
Particular attention is paid to public governance in the field and the widely developed conceptual framework of the projects. The article demonstrates the institutional arrangements for decision-making, including a characterization of the roles of government agencies and the private sector. It shows how, through “small but beautiful” digital projects, China is forming long-term relationships, creating channels of influence, and strengthening its position in global competition with the West for control over digital routes, platforms, and regulatory environments.
Drawing on Chinese sources, it is concluded that “small but beautiful” digital projects represent an important tool of PRC soft power with a high degree of institutional sophistication and geo-economic precision.
Prospects for Trade and Economic Cooperation between Russia and the Republic of Korea at the Present Stage
Viktoria G. Samsonova
Polina A. Zhuchkina
Russian-South Korean trade and economic cooperation has faced serious challenges in recent years and continues to be on a negative track. After achieving record levels of bilateral trade in 2021, opportunities for further economic cooperation continue to shrink, influenced by political factors. The main reasons for this were the Republic of Korea’s accession to the anti-Russian sanctions of the collective West in connection with the start of Russia’s special military operation in Ukraine, as well as the introduction by Seoul of an export control list against Russia and the Republic of Belarus. These measures limited the supply of a number of goods and complicated financial transactions, thereby creating serious obstacles to trade. However, despite the current circumstances, business circles of both countries are interested in continuing the partnership and are looking for new ways to do this. One of the important aspects of this process is that South Korean companies are seeking to occupy the vacant niche after a leave of European companies, in particular in such areas as the supply of cosmetics, textiles and food products, where they are in great demand among Russian consumers. If previously the emphasis was on raw materials, now other categories of goods such as the agro-industrial complex, entertainment content and other promising goods are actively included in the trade turnover. This article analyzes the current situation in trade and economic cooperation between Russia and the Republic of Korea, explores the ways and opportunities for activating such partnership in the context of global challenges and existing sanctions pressure.
Russian-South Korean Trade Structure Transformation in 2022–2023
Anna E. Shikhina
The article examines the dynamics of trade between Russia and the Republic of Korea, analyzing its data since 2010 and paying particular attention to the changes that have occurred since 2022. By comparing the current declining trade flows with the statistics of 2015–2016, the author concludes that the drop in trade turnover in 2022 was less significant in percentage terms. The author dissects the transformation of Russian-Korean bilateral trade structure, examining separately energy trade, and also provides his own calculations of trade intensity indices and assesses the reciprocal role of Russia and the Republic of Korea in their foreign trade. The author also identifies the most vulnerable groups of goods that make the Republic of Korea heavily dependent on Russia. Moreover, the main point of the article is the analysis of the role of third countries and parallel imports in the ongoing transformations of trade relations between the countries, viz. the role of some EAEU countries and oil refineries. The reasons for the surge in smartphone and vehicle exports from South Korea to EAEU countries, such as Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, are obvious. Unlike other unfriendly countries, Russia and the Republic of Korea have developed ‘indirect’, ‘roundabout’ trade routes, and by studying the statistics of these routes it is possible to conclude that the countries currently avoid breaking off trade relations and are still interested in finding ways to continue their economic cooperation despite restrictions and sanctions pressure from Western countries. The author also offers a number of positive and negative factors influencing Russian-Korean economic cooperation under current conditions, both economic and political factors. Maintaining and developing economic relations with the Republic of Korea in the future will ensure access to high-tech equipment and implementation of investment projects in the Far East.
Chinese Front of World War II in the Assessments of Soviet (Russian) Authors: Historiographical Essay
Boris N. Gorbachev
The article presents a historiographical review of the research of Russian scientists on the topic of the Chinese front of World War II. The author of the article does not set the task of a detailed analysis of all Russian publications, but only seeks to give a general assessment of the literature published from the 1930s to the present day. The article highlights four periods of research work (the war years before the formation of the PRC, 1950–1960, the period 1965–1988 and the current stage after the normalization of Russian-Chinese relations 1989–2025). The author names the main features of each period of research, assessing the results achieved.
The article primarily examines the military actions of the opposing sides and the armed resistance of the Chinese people to the Japanese occupiers as the subject area. At the same time, it takes into account important political, international and other aspects of a wide range of events in the context of World War II. Therefore, the concept of «Chinese front of World War II» is conditional, since it is smaller than such a complex and large-scale phenomenon as «China’s war against Japanese aggression».
The article, based on a comparative analysis of Russian historiography of different periods of time, concludes that a positive aspect of modern Russian research is, on the one hand, adherence to the principle of continuity in relation to the best achievements of Soviet authors, and on the other hand, the desire to re-evaluate, on the basis of a wide range of sources, the previous positions of historians that have not stood the test of time.
The author of the article emphasizes that, despite the rather extensive domestic historiography on the topic of the Chinese front of World War II, the task of continuing this work in Russia on the basis of modern methodologies and research methods remains relevant, taking into account that new narratives are actively promoted in the PRC in assessing the historical events of World War II.
Researcher of Northeast China Vladimir Kormazov (1886–1960)
Gao Mingyue
Amir Aleksandrovich Khisamutdinov
The publication is dedicated to the statistician, economist and ethnographer Vladimir Alekseevich Kormazov, who first conducted field research in Central Asia, then in northeast China, and repeatedly carried out complex studies and expeditions (1922–1935). His responsibilities included accounting for the commercial and industrial activities of the western line of the Chinese Eastern Railway (CER). For several years, he was engaged in research in Bargi, the western part of the Heilongjiang province of China. In the monograph «Barga» he described the history of this region rich in natural resources, its climate, administrative structure, population composition, communications, main settlements, and economic structure. This material was then published in Chinese and Japanese. As a member of the Society for the Study of the Manchurian Region (OIMK), he was engaged in archaeological excavations and collected ethnographic collections for the Harbin Regional Museum. Kormazov was one of the first to describe the life of the Russian Three Rivers region. The ethnography of northwest China occupied an important part of his research. He not only described in detail the occupations of Chinese peasants, but also drew attention to the life of the indigenous peoples of the regions that bordered Russia. He studied the social life of the Chinese and Mongols, customs, collected fairy tales, songs and legends, as well as household items. The article notes the reasons for his emigration to the USA, his connections with emigration cultural figures I.I. Serebrennikov (Tianjin) and A.S. Lukashkin (San Francisco). In Seattle, Kormazov completed several important manuscripts, the most valuable being “Honghuzi Partisans in Manchuria, Korea, Mongolia and China.” The basis for the publication was the collection of V.A. Kormazov, stored in the Museum of Russian Culture (MRK) in San Francisco, also private collections.
The Discipline of Regional Studies in China: the Requirements of the Era and National Characteristics
Dai Hui
Elena S. Bazhenova
Andrei V. Ostrovskii
Disciplines are the center of various aspects of knowledge production, talent cultivation, and social services organized by universities. Since the State Council Academic Degrees Committee included Regional Studies as a first level discipline in 2022, the Regional Studies has entered a new historical period. The leap forward development of Regional Studies in China reflects the characteristics of the time, such as the deepening interaction between China and the world, the need to cover more countries and regions in formulating national strategies, and the joint construction of a community with a shared future with other countries. The construction of Regional Studies in China has Chinese characteristics: Regional Studies are disciplines that serve national needs and provide knowledge supply for national strategies. The combination of Regional Studies’ development and disciplinary construction is a breakthrough point in the construction of China’s independent knowledge system. There is great potential for cooperation between China and Russia in the construction of Regional Studies in China.